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Campus sexual assault is the sexual assault, including rape, of a student while attending an institution of higher learning, such as a college or university. The victims of such assaults are more likely to be female, but any gender can be victimized. Estimates of sexual assault, which vary based on definitions and methodology, generally find that somewhere between 19 and 27% of college women and 6–8% of college men are sexually assaulted during their time in college.
A 2007 survey by the National Institute of Justice found that 19.0% of college women and 6.1% of college men experienced either sexual assault or attempted sexual assault since entering college. In the University of Pennsylvania Law Review in 2017, D. Tuerkheimer reviewed the literature on rape allegations, and reported on the problems surrounding the credibility of rape victims, and how that relates to false rape accusations. She pointed to national survey data from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention that indicates 1 in every 5 women and 1 in 71 men will be raped during their lifetime at some point. Despite the prevalence of rape and the fact that false rape allegations are rare, Tuerkheimer reported that law enforcement officers often default to disbelief about an alleged rape. This documented prejudice leads to reduced investigation and criminal justice outcomes that are faulty compared to other crimes. Tuerkheimer says that women face "credibility discounts" at all stages of the justice system, including from police, jurors, judges, and prosecutors. These credibility discounts are especially pronounced when the accuser is acquainted with the accused, and the vast majority of rapes fall into this category. The U.S. Department of Justice estimated from 2005 to 2007 that about 2% of victims who were raped while incapacitated (from drugs, alcohol, or other reasons) reported the rape to the police, compared to 13% of victims who experienced physically forced sexual assault.
In response to charges that schools have poorly supported women who have reported sexual assaults, in 2011 the United States Department of Education issued a "Dear Colleague" letter to universities advising academic institutions on various methods intended to reduce incidents of sexual assault on campuses. Some legal experts have raised concerns about risks of abuses against the accused. Following changes to disciplinary processes, lawsuits have been filed by men alleging bias and/or violations of their rights.
Studies that have examined sexual assault experiences among college students in western countries other than the U.S. have found results similar to those found by American researchers. A 1993 study of a nationally representative sample of Canadian College students found that 28% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault in the preceding year, and 45% of women had experienced some form of sexual assault since entering college. A 1991 study of 347 undergraduates in New Zealand found that 25.3% had experienced rape or attempted rape, and 51.6% had experienced some form of sexual victimization. A 2011 study of students in the United Kingdom found that 25% of women had experienced some type of sexual assault while attending university and 7% of women had experienced rape or attempted rape as college students.
On campuses, it has been found that alcohol is a prevalent issue in regards to sexual assault. It has been estimated that 1 in 5 women experience an assault, and of those women, 50–75% have had either the attacker, the woman, or both, consume alcohol prior to the assault. Not only has it been a factor in the rates of sexual assault on campus, but because of the prevalence, assaults are also being affected specifically by the inability to give consent when intoxicated and bystanders not knowing when to intervene due to their own intoxication or the intoxication of the victim.
In 1995, the CDC replicated part of this study with 8,810 students on 138 college campuses. They examined rape only and did not look at attempted rape. They found that 20% of women and 4% of men had experienced rape in the course of her or his lifetime.
If someone wanted to reach out for help privately, there are many call hotlines available to receive support anonymously and confidentially. The nation's largest anti-sexual violence organization is RAINN (the Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network). RAINN provides support and guidance to survivors in many ways.
College campuses are also required to provide support to any students who have experienced sexual assault under Title IX laws. "The Women's Rights Project, in collaboration with Students Active For Ending Rape (SAFER) a national nonprofit that empowers students to hold colleges accountable for sexual assault in their communities has put together the fact sheet, podcast series, and other resources on this page to get the word out to student activists about how they can use Title IX as an effective tool for change." Because of this students can not be turned away from support services provided by their college or university. This allows survivors to receive the required support following their assault.
The first approach, "individual determinants", stems from the psychological perspective of rape. This approach views campus sexual assault as primarily the result of individual characteristics possessed by either the perpetrator and/or the victim. For example, Malamuth & Colleagues identified individual characteristics of hostile masculinity and impersonal sexual behavior as critical predictors of sexual aggression against women. Their psychological model states that men who display hostile masculinity traits (e.g. a desire to control/dominate women and an insecure, hypersensitive, and distrustful orientation toward women) and impersonal sexual behavior (e.g. an emotionally detached, promiscuous, and non-committal orientation towards sexual relations) are more likely to support the use of violence against women and engage in sexual assault. Their findings have been replicated in college student samples and non-student adult samples (Malamuth et al., 1991; Malamuth et al., 1993). Further, narcissistic entitlement and trait aggression have been identified as major individual risk factors for rape (LeBreton et al., 2013). The General desire or need for sex, contrary to popular opinion, is not significantly associated with sexual assault, indicating that sexual assault is an act of dominance rather than sexual gratification (Abbey & McAuslan, 2004). In regards to victims, white women, first-year students, non-students on college campuses, prior victims, and women who are more sexually active are more vulnerable to being sexually assaulted.
The rape culture approach stems from second-wave feminism (1997). 9780803970274 ISBN 9780803970274 and focuses on how rape is pervasive and normalized due to societal attitudes about gender and Human sexuality.
The third approach to explaining rape identifies the contexts in which that rape and sexual assault occur. This approach suggests that, although rape culture is a factor to why sexual assault occurs, it is also the characteristics of its setting that can increase vulnerability. For instance, practices, rules, distribution or resources, and the ideologies of the university or college can promote unhealthy beliefs about gender and can in turn contribute to campus sexual assault. Fraternities are known for hosting parties in which binge drinking and casual sex are encouraged, which increase the risk of sexual assault.
Of the 1,084 respondents to a 1998 survey at Liberty University, 8.1% of males and 1.8% of females reported perpetrating unwanted sexual assault. Pdf.
According to Carol Bohmer and Andrea Parrot in "Sexual Assault on Campus" males are more likely to commit a sexual assault if they choose to live in an all-male residency when co-ed housing is available. (1993). 9780029037157, New York : Lexington Books; Toronto : Maxwell Macmillan Canada; New York : Maxwell Macmillan International. . ISBN 9780029037157
Both athletic males and fraternities have higher rates of sexual assault. Student-athletes commit one-third of all campus sexual assaults at a rate six times higher than non-athletes. A study conducted by the NASPA in 2007 and 2009 suggests, "that fraternity members are more likely than non-fraternity members to commit rape".
In another article by Antonia Abby, she found that there are certain characteristics that male perpetrators that put them at risk of committing sexual assault. As she stresses perpetrators vary "but many show a lack of concern for other people, scoring high on narcissism and low on empathy. Many have high levels of anger in general well as misogyny; they are suspicious of women's motives, believe common , and have a sense of entitlement about sex". Also, males on athletic teams are more likely to commit an assault after a game. The commonality between the two instances is the involvement of alcohol. Assailants are not limited to these two situations however there can also be a connection made in regards to their status in school.
A 2007 National Institute of Justice study found that, in terms of perpetrators, about 80% of survivors of physically forced or incapacitated sexual assault were assaulted by someone that they knew.
The 2015 AAU Campus Climate Survey report found that transgender and gender non-conforming students were more likely than their peers to experience a sexual assault involving physical force or incapacitation. Out of 1,398 students who identified as TGQN, 24.1% of undergraduates and 15.5% of graduate/professional students reported experiencing a sexual assault involving physical force since enrolled. By comparison, 23.1% of female undergraduates and 8.8% of female graduate students reported the same type of sexual assault, along with 5.4% of male undergraduates and 2.2% of male graduate/professional students. Overall, sexual assault or misconduct was experienced at a rate of 19% among transgender and gender non-conforming students, 17% among female students, and 4.4% of male students.
Many victims completely or partially blame themselves for the assault because they are embarrassed and shamed, or fear not being believed. These elements may lead to underreporting of the crime. According to research, "myths, stereotypes, and unfounded beliefs about male sexuality, in particular male homosexuality", contribute to underreporting among males. In addition, "male sexual assault victims have fewer resources and greater stigma than do female sexual assault victims." Hispanic and Asian students may have lower rates of knowing a victim or perpetrator due to cultural values discouraging disclosure.
The Neumann study found that fraternity members are more likely than other college students to engage in rape; surveying the literature, it described numerous reasons for this, including peer acceptance, alcohol use, the acceptance of rape myths, and viewing women as sexualized objects, as well as the highly masculinized environment.Neumann, S., "Gang Rape: Examining Peer Support and Alcohol in Fraternities" in Sex Crimes and Paraphilia Hickey, E.W. (ed.), Pearson Education, 2006, pp. 397–407. Although gang rape on college campuses is an issue, acquaintance, and party rape (a form of acquaintance rape where intoxicated people are targeted) are more likely to happen.Thio, A., 2010. Deviant Behavior, 10th Edition
A direct association has been found between internalized homophobia and unwanted sexual experiences among LGBTQ college-aged students, suggesting that the specific stresses of identifying as LGBTQ as a college-aged student puts people more at risk for sexual violence. The obstacles that LGBTQ students face with regard to sexual assault can be attributed not only to internalized homophobia, but also to institutionalized heterosexism and Transphobia within college campuses.
Incidents of sexual assault among LGBTQ students may be influenced by a variety of situational factors. Many members of the LGBTQ youth community suffer from serious depression and suicidal thoughts. The prevalence of attempted suicide among LGBTQ populations ranges from 23% to 42% for youth. Many LGBTQ youth use alcohol to cope with depression. One study found that 28% of those who interviewed had received treatment for alcohol or drug abuse. Furthermore, rates of substance use and abuse are much higher among LGBTQ college students than heterosexuals, with LGBTQ women being 10.7 times more likely to drink than heterosexual women. Unfortunately, many predators target those appearing to be vulnerable and it was found that over one half of all sexual abuse victims reported they had been drinking when they were abused.Abbey, A., Ross, L. T., & McDuffie, D. (1995). Alcohol's role in sexual assault. In R. R. Watson (Ed.), Drug and alcohol abuse reviews, Vol. 5: Addictive behaviors in women (pp. 97–123). Totowa, NJ: Humana.
During social interactions, alcohol consumption encourages biased appraisal of a partner's sexual motives, impairs communication about sexual intentions, and enhances misperception of sexual intent. These effects are exacerbated by peer influence about how to act when drinking. The effects of alcohol at point of forced sex are likely to impair ability to rectify misperceptions, diminish ability to resist sexual advancements, and justifies aggressive behavior. Alcohol provides justification for engaging in behaviors that are usually considered inappropriate. The increase of assaults on college campuses can be attributed to the social expectation that students participate in alcohol consumption. The peer norms on American college campuses are to drink heavily, to act in an uninhibited manner and to engage in casual sex. However, a study on the reports of women in college shows that their substance use is not a risk factor for forced sexual assault, but is a risk factor for sexual assault while the victim is incapacitated.
Various studies have concluded the following results:
Some have noted gender-specific and variable standards for intoxicated consent. In a recent lawsuit against Duke University, a Duke administrator, when asked whether verbal consent need be mutual when both participants are drunk, stated, "Assuming it is a male and female, it is the responsibility in the case of the male to gain consent before proceeding with sex." Other institutions state only that a rape victim has to be "intoxicated" rather than "incapacitated" by alcohol or drugs to render consent impossible.
In one study that Antonia Abby describes in her article, a group of 160 men students listen to an audiotape recording of a date rape. In the beginning the woman agrees to kissing and touching but once the man tries to remove her clothes and she refuses the male becomes more aggressive verbally and physically. The men were asked to stop the tape at the point that they felt the man's behavior was inappropriate. "Participants who consumed alcohol allowed the man to continue for a longer period of time and rated the women's sexual arousal higher than did sober participants. The findings suggest that intoxicated men may project their own sexual arousal onto a women, missing or ignoring her active protest".
A study conducted by Elizabeth Armstrong, Laura Hamilton and Brian Sweeney in 2006 suggests that it is the culture and gendered nature of fraternity parties that create an environment with greater likelihood of sexual assault. They state "Culture expectations that party goers drink heavily and trust party-mates become problematic when combined with expectations that women be nice and defer to men. Fulfilling the role of the parties produced vulnerability on the part of women, which some men exploit to extract non-consensual sex".
Alcohol is a factor in many rapes and other sexual assaults. As the study by Armstrong, Hamilton, and Sweeney suggests it might be one of the reasons for the under-reporting of rape where because of having been drinking victims fear that they will be ignored or not believed.
A 2007 study found that college-aged men who reported previous sexual aggression held negative attitudes toward women and gender roles, were more acceptant of using alcohol to obtain sex, were more likely to believe that rape was justified in some circumstances, were more likely to blame women for their victimization, and were more likely to view sexual conquest as an important status symbol.
According to sociologist Michael Kimmel, rape-prone campus environments exist throughout several university and college campuses in North America. Kimmel defines these environments as "one in which the incidence of rape is reported by observers to be high, or rape is excused as a ceremonial expression of masculinity, or rape as an act by which men are allowed to punish or threaten women."
More than 50% of all sexual assault cases occur during the period of move-in to the last day before Thanksgiving (August–November) as people are unfamiliar with the campus and may be trying out drugs or alcohol for the first time. Most campus sexual assaults are perpetrated by someone the victim knows. While stranger assault occurs the majority of sexual assaults are perpetrated by acquaintance. Freshman who are female, BIPOC, and LGBTQ+ are often most targeted during the red zone. Also, those who have experienced sexual assault in the first semester of college often have higher rates of anxiety and depression.
Furthermore, many researchers point out the risk of Greek life and frat parties to getting drugged, as they often provide opportunities for unmonitored alcohol consumption. In 2022, Cornell University, which has the third largest Greek life system in the nation, suspended all parties and social events linked to Greek life following an increase in reported incidents of drugging at parties
The best known articulation that rape and sexual assault is a broader problem was the 1975 book Against Our Will. The book broadened the perception of rape from a crime by strangers, to one that more often included friends and acquaintances, and raised awareness. As early as the 1980s, campus rape was considered an under-reported crime. Reasons included to the involvement of alcohol, reluctance of students to report the crime, and universities not addressing the issue.
A pivotal change in how universities handle reporting stemmed from the 1986 rape and murder of Jeanne Clery in her campus dormitory. Her parents pushed for campus safety and reporting legislation which became the foundation for Clery Act. The Clery Act requires that all schools in the U.S. that participate in federal student aid programs implement policies for addressing sexual assault.
A 2000 study by the National Institute of Justice found that only about a third of U.S. schools fully complied with federal regulations for recording and reporting instances of sexual assault, and only half offered an option for anonymous reporting of sexual assault victimization. One recent study indicated that universities also greatly under-report assaults as part of the Clery Act except when they are under scrutiny. When under investigation, the reported rate by institutions rises 44%, only to drop back to baseline levels afterwards.
Numerous colleges in the United States have come under federal investigation for their handling of sexual assault cases, described by civil rights groups as discriminatory and inappropriate.
Mandatory reporting of campus sexual assaults has recently been included in proposed bills. In March 2015, the National Alliance to End Sexual Violence (NAESV) conducted a survey in conjunction with Know Your IX regarding the right of the survivor to choose to report the assault to police authorities versus legislation which would enforce legal action upon reporting sexual assault to a university or college. "When asked their concerns if reporting to police were mandatory, 79% said, "this could have a chilling effect on reporting", while 72% were concerned that "survivors would be forced to participate in the criminal justice system/go to trial".
About 50% of sexual assaults that happen on campus typically happen between the beginning of the fall semester to Thanksgiving break. This is usually called the "red zone". This time frame is said to be more dangerous for freshman students. Bustle explains, "These months are often full of booze-filled back-to-school parties, where freshman with little drinking experience (and few friends watching out for them) are especially vulnerable to attack." It is very likely that freshman students are not as informed when it comes to taking preventative measures to avoid such attacks. Some tips would be to be aware of surroundings, pay attention to your drinks, and pay attention to your friends and make sure they are safe.
According to California's Yes Means Yes policy, California higher education institutes are required to enact specific protocols and policies in an attempt to combat power-based violence such as sexual assault on college campuses within the state. The state bill, as with others of the same degree, established the standard of consent known as "affirmative consent". This standard of consent placed the responsibility of attaining and maintaining consent to everyone involved in the sexual acts. In order to receive state funding for such matters, California campuses are responsible for collaborating with organizations both on and off campus in order to provide resources and assistance to the student body and make such services available when necessary. They must also exhibit prevention and outreach services to the campus community through programming, awareness campaigns, and education. This also includes holding awareness programming such as bystander intervention for incoming students during their orientation.
Some survivors of sexual violence have become notable activists. Emma Sulkowicz, then a student at Columbia University, created the performance art Mattress Performance (Carry That Weight). Lena Sclove, a student at Brown University, received media attention when she expressed that the one-year suspension of Daniel Kopin, who was accused of sexually assaulting her, was not an sufficient punishment due to the severity of the act he committed. While Kopin has publicly disputed the report and was found not guilty by the criminal justice system, he was determined responsible under the university's preponderance of the evidence standard. Such cases have led to controversy and concerns regarding presumption of innocence and due process, and have also highlighted the difficulties that universities face in balancing the rights of the accuser and the rights of the accused when dealing with cases of sexual assault. Nearly 100 colleges and universities had a significant number of reports of rape on their main campuses in 2014, with Brown University and the University of Connecticut tied for the highest annual total — 43 each. The Sulkowicz and Sclove cases have led to further complaints of bias by the men against the universities (Title IX or civil) regarding how they handled the matters.
Chanel Miller, a student at UC Santa Barbara, was sexually assaulted by a Stanford student, Brock Turner, after attending a fraternity party at Stanford. Turner was charged with five counts of sexual assault but was sentenced to only six months in prison. Throughout the trial, Miller remained anonymous through the pseudonym "Emily Doe" but stirred the public with her victim impact statement, starting a nationwide conversation. She later identified herself and published a memoir titled Know My Name, which began her activism about rape on college campuses.
One outside group, UltraViolet, has used online media tactics, including search engine advertisements, to pressure universities to be more aggressive when dealing with reports of rape. Their social media campaign uses advertisements that sometimes lead with "Which College Has The Worst Rape Problem?" and other provocative titles that appear in online search results for a targeted school's name.
Our Turn, a Canadian student-driven initiative to end campus sexual violence, began in 2017. The initiative was launched by three Carleton University students, including Jade Cooligan Pang, and soon spread to 20 student unions in eight Canadian provinces. In October 2017, Our Turn released a survey evaluating the sexual assault policies of 14 Canadian universities along with an action plan for student unions to support survivors of sexual assault. The action plan includes creating Our Turn committees on campus to address sexual violence through prevention, support, and advocacy work at the campus, provincial, and national levels.
In 2019, students at Princeton University staged a sit-in and social media campaign concerning the implementation of Title IX policies regarding sexual assault cases on Princeton's campus, which made national headlines. The protests were conducted in response to a student's disciplinary sentence, which was considered retaliatory by protesters.
The organization Students Against Institutional Violence at the University of Vermont is devoted to creating a safe and healthy environment for all students. The organization aims to combat various forms of discrimination, including sexual violence, racism, homophobia, transphobia, and ableism, through public education and advocacy. One of their primary initiatives is addressing the role Greek life plays in perpetuating rape culture. The group argues that the established policies and practices within fraternities act as an incubator for sexual violence and misconduct. They are calling on the university to commit to greater transparency and accountability, by rebuilding the Title IX website, simplifying the complex legal language used in the Title IX reporting process, and establishing an alternative pathway for reporting incidents beyond the traditional legal framework that is rooted in the values of restorative justice.
In 2022, Students Against Institutional Violence took activism beyond campus, in providing testimony to the Vermont legislature in support of Bill H.40, which would criminalize the non-consensual removal or tampering with a sexually protective device during intercourse, a practice known as “stealthing.” The student organization believes that the act of “stealthing” is sexual assault, as it involves consensual sex under false pretenses. Their advocacy marked a significant step in student involvement for legal protection against forms of sexual violence.
In 2022, hundreds of students at the University of Vermont staged a protest in response to an Instagram post by the university, which simultaneously congratulated athletes and denounced anonymous accusations of sexual assault on social media. The demonstration, which coincided with Admitted Students Visit Day, moved through campus, including the Davis Center and Brennan's Pub and Bistro, areas set aside for prospective students. UVM athletics faced intense backlash for protecting abusers within its institution, according to student sources, and the men's basketball team in particular is the target for numerous allegations. One of the victims, graduate student Kendall Ware, spoke out about the mishandling of her sexual assault case during her time as an undergraduate. She accused Anthony Lamb, now an NBA player, of assaulting her at an off-campus party in 2019, when he was a member of the men's basketball team.
In 2014, President Barack Obama established the White House Task Force to Protect Students from Sexual Assault, which published a report reiterating the interpretation of Title IX in the "Dear Colleague" letter and proposing a number of other measures to prevent and respond to sexual assault on campus, such as campus climate surveys and bystander intervention programs. One example of a campus climate survey that was developed in response to this task force is the ARC3 Survey. Shortly thereafter, the Department of Education released a list of 55 colleges and universities across the country that it was investigating for possible Title IX violations in relation to sexual assault. As of early 2015, 94 different colleges and universities were under ongoing investigations by the U.S. Department of Education for their handling of rape and sexual assault allegations.
In September 2014, President Obama and Vice President Joe Biden launched the "It's on Us" campaign as part of an initiative to end sexual assault on college campuses. The campaign partnered with many organizations and college campuses to get students to take a pledge to end sexual assault on campuses.
The Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE) has been critical of university definitions of consent that it considers overly broad. In 2011, FIRE criticized Stanford University after it held a male student responsible for a sexual assault for an incident where both parties had been drinking. FIRE said that Stanford's definition of consent, quoted as follows "A person is legally incapable of giving consent if under age 18 years; if intoxicated by drugs and/or alcohol;", was so broad that sexual contact at any level of intoxication could be considered non-consensual. Writing for The Atlantic magazine, Conor Friedersdorf noted that a Stanford male who alleges he was sexually assaulted in 2015 and was advised against reporting it by on-campus sexual assault services, could have been subjected to a counterclaim based on Stanford policy by his female attacker who was drunk at the time. FIRE was also critical of a poster at Coastal Carolina University, which stated that sex is only consensual if both parties are completely sober and if consent is not only present, but also enthusiastic. The FIRE argued that this standard converted ordinary lawful sexual encounters into sexual assault even while drinking is very common at most institutions.
In May 2014, the National Center for Higher Education Risk Management, a law firm that advises colleges on liability issues, issued an open letter to all parties involved in the issue of rape on campus. In it, NCHERM expressed praise for Obama's initiatives to end sexual assault on college campuses, and called attention to several areas of concern they hoped to help address. While acknowledging appreciation for the complexities involved in changing campus culture, the letter offered direct advice to each party involved in campus hearings, outlining the improvements NCHERM considers necessary to continue the progress achieved since the issuance of the "Dear Colleague" letter in 2011. In early 2014, the group RAINN (Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network) wrote an open letter to the White House calling for campus hearings to be de-emphasized due to their lack of accountability for survivors and victims of sexual violence. According to RAINN, "The crime of rape does not fit the capabilities of such boards. They often offer the worst of both worlds: they lack protections for the accused while often tormenting victims."
Many institutions today are facing Title IX investigations due to the alleged lack of response on their campus to sexual assault. New policies by colleges have spawned "a cottage industry" of experts to address sexual assault on their campuses. "The Federal Education Department urges colleges to make sure their discipline policies do not discourage students from coming forward to report sexual assaults." Colleges need to be away of their policies in order to not victim blame their students and provide them with the adequate support that is need for the student. Many campuses are facing the same challenges on how to address the problem of sexual assault and are taking measures to do so, by hiring teams for addressing Title IX complaints.
In October 2014, 28 members of the Harvard Law School Faculty co-signed a letter decrying the change in the way reports of sexual harassment are being processed." Rethink Harvard's sexual harassment policy", The Boston Globe, 14 October 2014. The letter asserted that the new rules violate the due process rights of the responding parties. In February 2015, 16 members of the University of Pennsylvania Law School Faculty co-signed a similar letter of their own.
In response to concerns, in 2014 the White House Task Force provided new regulations requiring schools to permit the accused to bring advisers and be clearer about their processes and how they determine punishments. In addition to concerns about legal due process, which colleges currently do not have to abide, the push for stronger punishments and permanent disciplinary records on transcripts can prevent students found responsible from ever completing college or seeking graduate studies. Even for minor sexual misconduct offenses, the inconsistent and sometimes "murky" notes on transcripts can severely limit options. Mary Koss, a University of Arizona professor, co-authored a peer-reviewed paper in 2014 that argues for a "restorative justice" response – which could include counseling, close monitoring, and community service – as a better paradigm than the judicial model most campus hearing panels resemble.
Some critics of these policies have characterized the concerns about sexual assault on college campuses as a moral panic, such as libertarian critics of feminism Cathy Young, Laura Kipnis, and Christina Hoff Sommers who criticized the CDC 1 in 5 statistic by claiming issues with its methodology and that it did not line up with the Bureau of Justice Statistics pointing to "approximately one-in-forty college women".
Other examples include:
In May 2020, DeVos released the finalized new set of regulations under Title IX. Some of the new regulations hold that employees, such as faculty, athletic staff, and more, are no longer required to report allegation of sexual misconduct and those going through misconduct investigations are required to hold live hearings with the opportunity to cross-examine the accuser. If an assault happens outside of campus grounds, they no longer fall under Title IX protections. This is regardless to the fact if any or all parties involved are students. Allegations must meet the new criteria in order to formally be investigated, otherwise schools are allowed to dismiss the case. Kathryn Nash, a higher education attorney at Lathrop GPM states, "under the new regulations, to meet the definition of sexual harassment, the conduct 'has to be so severe, pervasive and objectively offensive that it effectively denies a person equal access to the recipient's education program or activity, so that's definitely a higher burden.
The Bystander Intervention programs is a system many schools are promoting to help students to feel empowered and knowledgeable. The program provides skills to effectively assist in the prevention of sexual violence. This gives a specific to that students can use in preventing sexual violence, including naming and stopping situations that could lead to sexual violence before it happens, stepping in during an incident, and speaking out against ideas and behaviors that support sexual violence. A few schools that are currently promoting the program are Johnson County Community College, The University of Massachusetts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Loyola University of Chicago.
One study found that a large percentage of university students know victims of sexual assault, and that this personal knowledge differs among ethnic groups. These findings have implications for college programs, suggesting that prevention efforts be tailored to the group for which the program is intended.
Since media has been around, students have found ways to incorporate it into their fight against sexual assault within colleges, universities, and institutions. Social media is an important tool on college campuses that pushes the conversation further, addresses myths, and helps provide education and support for survivors and allies. It is also a tool used for activism, in this case, student activism. Student activism is an organization or movement to push for systematic change on campus.
Before social media, activism was more biased and failed to address the implicit biases of race, gender, and class. Online activism and media have shown a new way to ensure inclusivity to those who are a part of marginalized groups. Media has done this by providing an open platform for students and a space for people to share stories which helps victims and survivors to feel less isolated and heal from their experiences. Social media also helps student activists connect with other student activists on other campuses, which builds a community and continues the progression of combating sexual assault in colleges.
Mainstream media is seen to primarily portray stereotypes of white women. Social media combats this by allowing activists to have a space to address the intersectionality within sexual assault in ways the mainstream media does not. Media also provides , false accusations and does not always provide all the facts of a case. This can cause a culture where victims on a college campus are hesitant to report a sexual assault.
Effective media campaigns to enhance student awareness can not be created without understanding the relationship students have with media and the mindset students have regarding sexual assault. Repetitive exposure to sexual assault in the media will help students understand the topic's importance. Incorporating campaigns to correct students' misconceptions about sexual assault can help reduce myths and stereotypes.
The hashtag and sharing function on social media platforms helps to reach audiences and demographics that may not have seen it otherwise. Younger generations, such as college students, use social media as their primary source to gain information. Hashtags are significant when it comes to sexual assault awareness within college campuses as they create easy access to a community of support for survivors, victims, and activists. Survivors can share their stories which could then have the potential to impact and help new and old victims who are working to heal. The MeToo movement is a pivotal point in media involvement and an example of how Hashtags have been used.
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